21-2014, tome 111, 4, 2014, p. 593-602 - A. TESTART (†) - L’évolution des chasseurs-cueilleurs Hypothèse supplétive sur le mariage

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21-2014, tome 111, 4, 2014, p. 593-602 - A. TESTART (†) - L’évolution des chasseurs-cueilleurs Hypothèse supplétive sur le mariage

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Dans cet article posthume, Alain Testart revient sur le délicat passage entre deux structures sociales de chasseurs-cueilleurs nomades largement évoqué dans Avant l"Histoire (Testart, 2012). Comment expliquer que certains chasseurs-cueilleurs nomades de structure sociale non évolutive, comme il l"expose dans cet ouvrage, puissent déboucher sur un autre type de société? Sur quelle base ces sociétés peuvent-elles se transformer alors même qu"elles semblent bloquées dans leur développement technique? Il aborde ici cette transformation sociale a priori improbable mais néanmoins envisageable à condition d'adopter une approche probabiliste et propose le scénario le plus plausible pour son déroulement. Ce raisonnement s'inscrit dans le cadre de ses réflexions sur l'évolution sociale des sociétés, et plus particulièrement sur les critères de classification des sociétés « à richesse » et « sans richesse » ainsi que sur l'opposition irréductible entre deux types de sociétés chez les chasseurs-cueilleurs. Dans cet article, c'est notamment au moyen des institutions matrimoniales qu'il tentera d'expliquer et de reconstituer cette transformation. Ce raisonnement hypothétique suppose donc une bonne connaissance des prestations matrimoniales, dont les traits essentiels et le mode de notation sont brièvement rappelés ici. En première analyse, le scénario proposé est une transformation des obligations viagères (prestations matrimoniales où sont régulièrement fournis des produits alimentaires) en un prix de la fiancée composé essentiellement de nourritures traitées pour être conservées (poisson surtout). Cependant, tout les facteurs techniques et économiques, données ethnographiques, etc. s'oppose à cette idée. On est donc conduit à imaginer une forme de mariage plus complexe dans laquelle les obligations viagères sont remplacées par une combinaison de deux types de prestations (le service pour la fiancée et le prix de la fiancée) et dans laquelle sont remis non seulement de la nourriture mais également des matières premières animales (peaux, matières osseuses, etc.), voire des objets manufacturés à partir de ces matières. Cette transformation est toutefois un changement radical qui n'a pas dû prendre forme brutalement. Sans doute introduit au départ comme une exception (valable pour certains mariages seulement, par exemple le mariage avec la fille aînée), ce nouveau mode de mariage aurait ensuite évolué graduellement jusqu'à ce que l'ancien système des obligations viagères devienne résiduel, puis caduc. L'auteur termine en ouvrant une prospective beaucoup plus générale. Il se questionne en se demandant si l'on peut parler de chasseurs-cueilleurs sédentaires stockeurs dès le Paléolithique supérieur sur certaines côtes de l'Europe occidentale. Si oui, leur art nous permettrait-il incontestablement de les distinguer des chasseurs-cueilleurs nomades.

 

 

This article is an unpublished manuscript by Alain Testart, issued here posthumously as a complement to his book Avant l'Histoire (Testart, 2012). In this latter volume, A. Testart deals with the question of social evolution among prehistoric societies and the key element of his reflections is the opposition he makes between two types of hunter-gatherer social structures. This opposition is documented through the study of recent hunter-gatherers but allows him to suggest a hypothetical scenario of evolution for prehistoric societies as well. Indeed, the two types of social structures, A and B, are distinguished according to their evolutionary potential, and the evolutionary scenario is that, during the Paleolithic, a number of societies from type A (a type that is mostly exemplified, among recent hunter-gatherers, by Australian Aborigines, but is considered as originally universal) eventually evolved into type B. However this transformation is problematic because type A is described as non evolutionary, especially holding back technical development: in this type of society the hunter is not the owner of the game he hunts and he has life-long obligations to his affines, a situation which limits the incitement to develop new food acquisition technologies. Then how is it possible that type A still managed to lead to another type of social structure? In this paper A. Testart resumes the delicate issue of this transition from A to B. He proposes the most likely scenario for this transformation? a transformation that seems at first unlikely, but can still be envisaged provided that one adopts a probabilistic approach and suggests that the evolution of marriage transactions is the key factor to consider. Understanding this hypothetical scenario therefore requires a good knowledge of marriage transactions, of which the main characteristics and notation system are summarized here. The three main types of marriage transactions involved in the discussion are life-long obligations (Ob, where the son-in-law must supply food to his mother-in-law for all his life), service for the bride (S, where the son-in-law enters the service of his father-in-law for a given time period) and bride price or bridewealth (B, where the son-in-law must give a number of manufactured goods to his father-in-law as a payment for the bride). The discussion is made more complex by the fact that, in a given society, a variety of marriage forms and thus of marriage transactions exist, among which a choice is possible; and each of these forms can involve several types of transactions. As a first approach, the most likely scenario for the transition from A to B seems to be a transformation of life-long obligations (the dominant type of marriage transaction among type A societies) into a bride price mainly composed of food processed to be preserved (mostly dried fish). However, a number of arguments render this scenario extremely unlikely: technical and economical limitations in the production, manipulation and use of large amounts of dried fish; incompatible ethnographic data; etc. It is thus necessary to imagine a more complex form of marriage, in which life-long obligations (Ob) are replaced by a combination of two types of transactions: service for the bride the main transaction in this case and a complementary bride price (S+B). In an Upper Paleolithic context, this transformation is facilitated by the fact that the son-in-law who supplies food (i.e., game animals) to his father-in-law simultaneously provides him with important animal raw materials (skins, osseous materials, etc.). This conjunction might have been the turning point between food transactions and transactions expressed in material goods?????????animals raw materials and, eventually, objects manufactured from these materials, such as clothing, elaborated osseous industry, etc. However, this transformation from Ob to S+B radically changes one of the key social structures of hunter-gatherer societies; it is thus unlikely to have taken place as an abrupt event. It must rather have been a gradual process, and this new form of marriage was probably first introduced only as an exception to the normal rule, valid only for certain marriage situations? e.g., marriage with the eldest daughter, a type of marriage often subject to specific rules according to the ethnographic data. It would then have evolved according to the marriage strategies of the actors involved especially, in a polygamous system, the will of established men to acquire new spouses without becoming dependent on the new father-in-law until the older system of life-long obligations became first residual, then obsolete. As a conclusion, A. Testart opens a broader perspective. He considers the arguments for and against the possible existence on certain European coasts, already in the Upper Paleolithic, of hunter-gatherer societies analogous to the American Northwest Coas sedentary hunter-gatherers with large-scale food storage practices, economic inequality between rich and poor and marital transactions assorted with material goods. He then demonstrates that, should this existence ever be confirmed, these societies would not necessarily have art forms different from those of the neighboring nomadic hunter-gatherers.